The Effects of Yoga versus Exercise on Stress, Anxiety, and Depression in Older Adults

The Effects of Yoga versus Exercise on Stress, Anxiety, and Depression in Older Adults

Kimberlee Bethany Bonura, PhD, RYT1 & David Pargman, PhD2
1. Walden University, Minneapolis, MN 2. Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL


Abstract: The present study investigates the effect of chair Yoga versus walking and chair aerobics on psychological health in older adult men and women. Participants (M age = 83; N = 42) were randomly assigned to one of four activity groups: chair Yoga, chair aerobics, walking, and social games (non-activity control group). Classes met for 30 minutes, 3 days per week, for 6 weeks. ANCOVAs revealed significant time by group interaction for stress frequency; the Yoga group showed the most stress reduction over time. Time by group interactions for the other variables (stress severity, depression, and anxiety) were nonsignificant, although Yoga participants experienced the most benefits over the course of the intervention. Replication with a larger sample size is warranted in order to better understand the impact of Yoga on psychological health in older adults.

La meditación podría reducir el dolor

Un estudio publicado en la revista Pain muestra que la práctica de meditación de forma rutinaria puede reducir el dolor. Los hallazgos muestran que solo los individuos que habían realizado mediatación durante un largo período de tiempo presentaban una reducción del dolor.
En el estudio se incluyeron prácticas de meditación reflexiva y atenta, que forman la base de la terapia cognitiva recomendada para la depresión recurrente. Mediante el uso de un láser para inducir dolor, los autores observaron que la actividad de ciertas partes del cerebro parecía disminuir cuando los participantes del estudio se anticipaban al dolor.las personas con más de 35 años de experiencia en meditación eran las que menos se anticipaban al dolo y lo sufrían menosr. En particular, los meditadores también parecían mostrar una actividad inusual en la región de la corteza prefrontal del cerebro, la que regula los procesos de atención y pensamiento cuando una persona se siente amenazada.

Meditation experience predicts less negative appraisal of pain: Electrophysiological evidence for the involvement of anticipatory neural responses.
Brown CA, Jones AK.
Human Pain Research Group, University of Manchester, Clinical Sciences Building, Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust, Salford M6 8HD, UK.
Abstract
The aim of mindfulness meditation is to develop present-focused, non-judgmental, attention. Therefore, experience in meditation should be associated with less anticipation and negative appraisal of pain. In this study we compared a group of individuals with meditation experience to a control group to test whether any differences in the affective appraisal of pain could be explained by lower anticipatory neural processing. Anticipatory and pain-evoked ERPs and reported pain unpleasantness were recorded in response to laser stimuli of matched subjective intensity between the two groups. ERP data were analysed after source estimation with LORETA. No group effects were found on the laser energies used to induce pain. More experienced meditators perceived the pain as less unpleasant relative to controls, with meditation experience correlating inversely with unpleasantness ratings. ERP source data for anticipation showed that in meditators, lower activity in midcingulate cortex relative to controls was related to the lower unpleasantness ratings, and was predicted by lifetime meditation experience. Meditators also reversed the normal positive correlation between medial prefrontal cortical activity and pain unpleasantness during anticipation. Meditation was also associated with lower activity in S2 and insula during the pain-evoked response, although the experiment could not disambiguate this activity from the preceding anticipation response. Our data is consistent with the hypothesis that meditation reduces the anticipation and negative appraisal of pain, but effects on pain-evoked activity are less clear and may originate from preceding anticipatory activity. Further work is required to directly test the causal relationship between meditation, pain anticipation, and pain experience.

Copyright © 2010 International Association for the Study of Pain. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Asthma -(Shwas roga)



In today's stressful modern urbanised living, incidence of Asthma is considerably increasing. The rapid industrialisation , excessive crowding , Increasing pollution are some of the factors responsible for this increase in incidence of Bronchial Asthma.It has been stated that 15% of Indian population suffers from Asthma and in developed countries like USA every year there is 10% increase of Asthmatic patientsEvery now and then we come across patients of Asthma seeking Ayurvedic treatment and advice. This is because of the versatile approach of Ayurveda to root cause of the problem and it's belief in preventing the disease rather than treating it.

Ayurvedic Concept : In Ayurveda, Asthma is known as 'Swas Roga'Samprapti (Pathogenesis) : The vitiated 'Pranvayu' combines with deranged 'Kapha dosha' in the lungs causing obstruction in the 'Pranavaha srotasa'(Respiratory passage). This results in gasping and laboured breathing. This condition is known as 'Swas Roga'Types :

Five types of 'Swas Roga' are described in Ayurvedic texts1]Maha-shwas2]Urdhva-shwas3]Chinna-shwas4]Tamak-shwas5]Kshudra-shwasAmong these five types first three are not curable. 'Tamak-shwas is 'yapya'(Controllable) and is difficult to cure. The last one is curable. More than 75% of the cases belong to last two catagories.
Cause :A] Factors related to diet:Excessive indulgence in lablab beans ,black grams, raw milk, soar curd, excess salt, flesh of aquatic and wet land animals.Excessive use of 'Ruksha'(dry) and 'Guru'(heavy) diet, excessive use of cold water and cold drinks.Excessive use of 'Abhishandi'(Kapha producing) diet, Excessive use of not easily digestible and irritant food.B] Factors related to work :Excessive exposure to dust and smoke.Excessive wind, cold, cold bath or excessive heat, sun bath.Exhaustive exercise, walking, excessive sexual activities.Supression of natural urgesPsychological factorsC] Other Factors :Trauma to vital organs viz. - chest, throatAsthma may be as a sequaelae in other diseases like -Fever, Long standing common cold, Tuberculosis , Anaemia, Heart disease, Poisoning etc.Preventive Tips :
Avoid cold and damp places.
Go for morning or evening walk, do yoga mainly 'Pranayama'
Avoid over eating . Take light dinner one hour before going to bed
Avoid Tobacco, wine and smoking
Keep rooms well ventilated . Avoid air conditioners, coolers and direct air of fan
Avoid perfumes , Agarbatti. Mosquito repellents
Drink boiled water in plenty
Avoid over exercise and over indulgence in sex

Treatment :A] During attacks - Apply warm 'Til tail' over chest and back .Apply fomentation Take 'sunth powder'1/4 tea spoon+'Kali mirch' 6+'Kala namak 1/4 teaspoon+ 5 leaves of 'Tulsi' Boil this mixture in 200 ml water reducing it to 50 ml. Filter and sip it. Medicines -Ayurvedic medicines are very safe and cure the problem to a great extent. Few common medicines are -Swaskuthar ras, Sitopaladi choorna, Vasavleha etc.B] Treatment in between Attacks - 'Rasayan -chikitsa is advocated for'Pranvaha shrotasa'(Respiratory system). For example -'Vardhaman pippali rasayana.' Lung Tonic - Make paste of Black resin,dates, long pippali and honey,in equal quantity.Take one teaspoonful of it morning and evening with warm milk. Panchakarma especially 'Vaman' is advocated before rainy season
Simple Home Remedies :
Express the juice from garlic. Mix 10 to 15 drops in warm water and take internally for asthma relief.
Mix, onion juice ¼ cup, honey 1 tablespoon and black pepper 1/8 tablespoon.
Mix licorice and ginger together. Take ½ tablespoon in 1 cup of water for relief from asthma.
Drink a glass of 2/3 carrot juice, 1/3 spinach juice, 3 times a day .
Add 30-40 leaves of Basil in a liter of water, strain the leaves and drink the water throughout the day effective for asthma.




The prevalence of asthma in North America has increased markedly in recent decades. Since the 1960s, asthma and asthma symptoms among children and adolescents have increased each decade by up to 75%,.The United States and Canada have among the highest prevalences of both asthma symptoms and diagnosed asthma for both children and adults. Currently more than 1 North American in 10 has asthma, 35.5 million people overall.
Asthma is a chronic lung disease characterized by:
recurrent breathing problems
breathlessness
wheezing
chest tightness
coughing.
Asthma symptoms vary over time, and also differ in severity from one individual to another. When it is not effectively treated, asthma often leads to hospitalization, missed work and school, limitations on physical activity, sleepless nights and in some cases death.Asthma is often treated with steroids that actually weaken the lungs when used long term and come with many side effects such as:Dryness, candida or yeast infection, lowered immunity, thinning of bronchioles, rashes, psoriasis and many more.The sciences of yoga and ayurveda suggest that there are many ways to prevent asthma and treat it as well
Types of asthma. Ayurveda states that there are five types of asthma determined by their range in difficulty to treat and three types based on imbalance of:· the air element - dry type asthma, · fire element - infection type asthma · water type - congestion type asthma
Who is at risk? Dry type asthma is usually found in people who are tin, frail and who have dry skin and constipation and are sensitive to cold climates.Infection type asthma is usually found in those who are hot, who are prone to infection in general, who have red rashes on the skin or psoriasis and who are prone to bronchitis. Congestive type asthma is usually found in those who are heavier in body weight, big boned, prone to colds and sinus congestion or chest congestion and water retention and are sensitive to cold and humid climates..
Upon seeing these characteristics what can we do to reduce our chances of developing asthma?To treat dry type asthma - one should increase fluid intake. This will help to increase moisture and oxygen in the body. One should also keep the head, chest and back covered on cool days and avoid exposure to wind. Massage the body daily with sesame oil to add moisture to the body and try to eat foods that are moist and warm rather than raw, cold and rough dry foods. Avoid dairy products and nuts.For infection type asthma- one should drink plenty of water and avoid eating after 10:00 PM. Eating late in the night can cause the accumulation of toxins in the body due to improper digestion. One should also avoid deep fried foods, exertion in the cold or heat and should try to eat more fruits and vegetables rather than meats and dairy. If a person who is prone to infection type asthma he or she should try to ingest more turmeric, Echinacea in the form of tea and dandelion to prevent infections and boost the immune system. Mediation and breathing exercises are also helpful for such people as their asthma is usually related to stress and anger.For congestive type asthma - one should avoid dairy, wheat products, refined sugar and excess sweet, sour and salty foods. They should try to eat bitter, astringent and spicy foods to increase circulation and flow of mucus and to prevent congestion. They can massage the chest and back with mustard oil to promote circulation in the chest. Balm of Gilead is very effective when rubbed on the chest. It can prevent a chest cold from turning into pneumonia and can dilate the bronchial tubes to encourage deeper breathing. People who are prone to this type of asthma should exercise daily and try to do some cardio exercise for fifteen minutes per day. They should also avoid eating before 10:00am and after 9:00pm to ensure that they do not suffer from weak digestion which is the prime cause of asthma for them. They should keep the head and torso covered on cool days and avoid walking in the rain. It is important for them to drink hot water or Luke warm water rather than cold water and they should avoid iced beverages, ice cream and other cold foods to prevent mucus from becoming clogged.
In general, all people with asthma or chest problems should perform deep breathing exercises daily and can add a few simple spices to their diets to help keep their chests clear.Ginger, turmeric, black pepper cumin can be ground together and mixed with honey to create a paste. A teaspoon a day of this mixture is very useful in keeping the chest clear. Applying balm of Gilead, eucalyptus oil, cinnamon oil or clove oil to the chest and back also helps to improve breathing. Note, essential oils should be mixed with a base oil - sesame would be the best for those with dry or infection type asthma or mustard for those with congestion type asthma.
Below is a breathing technique than can be used to help increase lung capacity and stamina.Deep Breath
While inhaling, always remember that the body is being filled with air. When something is full it expands.
When we exhale we are emptying the body, thus, it will contract or shrink as it is emptied.
Also remember that unless otherwise mentioned, all breathing is done through the nose.
Sit in a position that is comfortable. The posture should be good. If the spine is not straight, the body cannot fill to its full capacity.
Sit with the hands on the ribs and tummy and inhale. Fill the tummy first and then feel the inhalation filling the rest of the lungs. Continue to breathe until the throat is full and then immediately begin to exhale. Exhale until the body is completely empty.
Repeat this exercise four times.
This breath can be performed anytime during the day to help you relax.
Benefits - It is very good for those who have asthma as it helps to increase lung capacity and awareness of the lungs and the breathing process. It also helps to soothe both body and mind.Many ailments can be treated with this breathing exercise because it increases the flow of oxygen to all parts of the body.
Note, for chronic conditions or severe cases of asthma it is always better to consult a qualified helath practitioner, but we have tried to provide you with some simple tips to help improve your quality of living.

Incompatible Food Combinations (Virudha-ahar)

© Dr. Vasant LadPublished by The Ayurvedic Institute

Within the field of holistic health and nutrition there is a great deal of controversy about food combining. Even among the population at large there is growing concern about diet, and confusion over the large number of conflicting theories on the subject.
Ayurveda, an ancient holistic science of healing, offers a logical and scientific approach for determining correct diet based upon an individual's constitution. Vata, pitta and kapha; the tri-dosha, are the elements which comprise individual constitution. This approach is quite different from the "traditional" view of a balanced diet; viz., eating daily from the basic food groups; meat, dairy, fruit, grains and vegetables. According to Ayurvedic literature, such a scheme is insufficient to lead us to the path of good health.
In the Ayurvedic literature there are five types of nutritional disorders:
1. Quantitative dietary deficiency. This includes under-nutrition due to insufficient food, and even starvation.2. Qualitative dietary deficiency. This includes wrong food combination which results in malnutrition, toxic condition and lack of essential nutrients.3. Qualitative and quantitative over-nutrition. This includes emotional overeating which can result in obesity and/or high cholesterol which can lead to hypertension, heart attacks or paralysis.4. Toxins in food. Certain foods and food combinations lead to toxemia and to certain digestive disorders.5. Foods not suitable to one's constitution may affect natural resistance and cause disease.
These five factors are closely connected to the strength of agni (the gastric fire). There are four types of agni:
1. VISHAMA AGNI. Due to vata dosha the gastric fire becomes vitiated, causing irregular appetite, indigestion and gases. Emotionally this can result in anxiety, insecurity, fear, and neurological or mental problems.

2. TIKSHNA AGNI. Pitta dosha is responsible for this type of agni disorder. It may cause hyper-metabolism, hyperacidity, heartburn and hypoglycemia leading to inflammatory diseases.

3. MANDA AGNI. This is due to an excess kapha condition, leading to slow metabolism, overweight, allergies and congestive diseases.

4. SAMA AGNI. This type of agni is the result of balanced tri-dosha. A person having this type of agni can eat almost any type of food without difficulty. Digestion, absorption and elimination are all normal.
The nutritionist should give consideration to these types of agni when making suggestions concerning diet.
According to Ayurveda, every food has its own taste (rasa), a heating or cooling energy (virya) and post-digestive effect (vipak). When two or three different food substances of different taste, energy and post-digestive effect are combined together agni can become overloaded inhibiting the enzyme system and resulting in production of toxins in the system. While it is true that an individual's agni largely determines how well or poorly food is digested, food combinations are also of great importance. When foods, (proteins, carbohydrates and fats) having different attributes, tastes, heating or cooling properties, and post-digestive effects are eaten together, agni will be slowed down. The foods can then remain in the stomach for seven to eight hours. These same foods, if eaten separately might well stimulate agni, be digested more quickly and even help to burn ama. Thus, according to Ayurveda, one should eat according to one's constitution and take fruits, starches, proteins and fats separately at different times of the day. Combining foods improperly can produce indigestion, fermentation, putrefaction and gas formation. This condition, if prolonged, can lead to toxemia and disease complex. For example, eating bananas with milk can diminish agni, change the intestinal flora producing toxins and may cause sinus congestion, cold, cough and allergies.

The Ayurvedic Effects of Asana Practice
Contributed by Dr. David Frawley
From the book Yoga for Your Type by David Frawley and Sandra Kozak (Lotus Press)

According to the philosophy of Yoga, the physical body is a manifestation of consciousness. It is a crystallization of
karmic (behavioral) patterns created by the mind. The key to working with the body, therefore, is to understand the
consciousness behind it, much of which lies outside our ordinary awareness. This requires that we practice asanas
aware not only of the technicalities of the postures but also of the mental and emotional states that they create within us.

Ayurveda shares this Yoga theory. It views the body as a manifestation of the doshas, which are not merely physical but
also pranic and psychological energies factors of consciousness. We cannot look into the doshic impact of asanas purely
on a physical level but must consider their psychological effects as well.

Yoga views asanas not merely as static poses but as conditions of energy, which in turn are manifestations of
consciousness. The energy and attention that we put into the pose is as important as the pose itself. We can see this in
ordinary life in which how we feel on a psychological level determines how we move on a physical level. Long term
patterns of feeling and energy determine the form and rhythm of the body.

Asana as Physical Structure

At the most basic level, an asana is a physical pose, a kind of bodily gesture. In asana practice we place the body into a
position that has a specific result and message depending upon the shape that it creates with the body. Each asana has
its own structural effect. Sitting poses provide stability in the spine. Some of them create flexibility in the backs of the
legs. Since most sitting postures create parasympathetic stimulation, they create a pleasant calming influence. Standing
poses increase general strength and energy levels. Backbends tend to excite us (sympathetic stimulation), increase
spinal extension, and create strength in the trunk elevator muscles. Relaxation poses even out and calm the energies
created by our asana practice. All asanas, whether in groups or individually, have their own energetics depending upon
what they do to the body. Like a house they have their own architecture.

However, since all our bodies do not have the same structure, the experience of an asana will vary depending upon the
build, flexibility and organic condition of the individual. The effect of the asana is a combination of the structure of the
asana, which is the same for everyone, and the person’s own bodily structure, which will vary not only by
individual but also changes through the course of time.

Asana as Pranic Energy

The physical body is a vehicle for our internal energies, which are defined through Prana. Asanas are vehicles through
which Prana is directed. An asana is not merely a physical structure but a condition of energy. Asanas express a quality
of energy and even quieting poses can contain behind them a dynamic condition of mind and Prana. This fact gives all
asanas a certain neutrality in their energetic effects, just as a vehicle in itself is neutral, with the goal of its travel
depending on the driver. The asana is like a car with Prana as the driving force. It is not just a question of having the right
vehicle but also of moving it in the right way. The pranic impulse behind the asana is as important as the asana itself.

This means that depending upon how we direct our Prana, the same asana can take us to different places. For example,
a sitting posture done with strong pranayama can have a very energizing effect, while with ordinary breathing it will quiet
us or even put us to sleep. The pranic energetics of an asana depend upon various factors including on how quickly we
do the posture, the degree of force we use and, above all, on how we breathe during the asana. In fact, the goal of asana
practice is to calm the body so that we can work on our Prana. Prana manifests when the body is still. This is the
importance of sitting poses for internal healing.

Asana as Thought and Intention

Asana is not only structure and energy but also reflects thought and intention. We could call asana a
‘thoughtful’ or ‘mindful’ form of exercise. The effects of the same asana will vary depending
upon whether our mind is clear or cloudy and our emotions are calm or turbulent. We may perform an asana with
technical precision but our state of mind will determine how liberating the asana actually is for our consciousness.

Our mental state is reflected in our breath. When the mind is calm, the breath is calm. When the mind is disturbed, the
breath is disturbed. So, mental and pranic energetics go together. While we can change the pranic effect of an asana
through the breath, we can also change the mental effects of an asana through concentration and meditation. An asana
should be a kind of meditation in form or movement. Therefore, we should always put our minds into a sacred space of
silence, observation, and detachment while performing Yoga.

If our consciousness is not engaged during the asana, then our practice remains at a superficial level. Prana follows the
energy of attention. The bodily posture is an outcome of that. The kind of posture that a person has reflects how they
place their attention in life, what they most commonly do. That is why so many of us are hunched over today. Our main
posture is sitting at a desk, in a car, or on a couch! This places our energy outside ourselves and so our internal energy
sinks or collapses.

In summary, therefore, the structural effect of the asana is the first factor. The way we energize the asana through Prana
is the second. This includes how we move through the asana and breathe within it. Our state of mind is a third factor.
The main rule in asana practice is to keep the mind calm, collected and attentive so that we don’t lose focus in the
practice. We must consider all three factors relative to an ayurvedic examination of asanas. All these factors are
interrelated. The dosha often contains the key to the structural, pranic and emotional state of a person.

Ayurvedic Effects of Asanas

Each asana has a particular effect defined relative to the three doshas. This is the same as how Ayurveda classifies
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foods according to their doshic effects as good or bad for Vata, Pitta and Kapha, depending upon the tastes and the
elements that compose each food article. We can look upon different asanas according to their structural ability to
increase or decrease the doshas.

However, this doshic equation of asanas should not be taken rigidly because the pranic effect of an asana can outweigh
its structural affect as we just noted. The form of the asana is not its main factor. Through the use of the breath we can
modify or even change the doshic effects of the asana. We must remember the importance of thought and intention in
asana practice as well. Considering the asana, Prana and the mind, we can alter a particular asana or adjust the entire
practice toward a particular doshic result. Through combining specific asanas, pranayama and meditation a complete
internal balance can be created and sustained.

Doshic application of asanas is twofold.

-
According to the constitution of the individual defined by their doshic type as Vata, Pitta and Kapha and their
intermixtures.

-
Relative to the impact of asana on the doshas as general physiological functions. Each dosha has its sites and actions in
the body that asanas will effect depending upon their orientation.



Constitutional Application

Vata types have a different bodily structure and move in a different way than do Pitta or Kapha types. Similarly, Pittas
and Kaphas have their own particular movements and postures that they assume as part of the doshic signature on their
bodies and minds. This difference between the doshas is reflected in the pulse of each type.

-
Vata types have a pulse with a snake-like motion. They move in a snake-like way—like a discharge of electricity,
with quick, abrupt, unpredictable and irregular movements. Their internal energy and thoughts have the same quickness,
brilliance, unpredictability and discontinuity.

-
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Pitta types have a frog-like pulse that is wiry, tight or bounding in nature. They move like a frog—jumping up in
continuous motion until they achieve their particular goal. Their movement is like how a fire leaps up when fed with new
fuel. They act with focus and determination, going from step to step. Their internal energy and thoughts have the same
determined and bounding movement and flow.

-
Kapha types have a pulse like a swan that is broad and flowing. They move like a swan—slow, stately and
elegant, taking their time in an undulating manner. Their energy flows like a slow meandering river, taking its time along
the way, assured of its ultimate goal. Yet when Kapha accumulates, their movement resembles water flowing through a
marshland, with resistance and leading to stagnation. Their internal energy and thoughts have the same watery
movement and possible inertia.



Each doshic type has its own particular structure and energetic of life that extends to asana practice. Asana practice
must consider the dosha of the person to be really effective.

-
Vata energy is impulsive and erratic, like the wind that blows hard but not for long. Yet if we oppose it, it will flee or break.
Vata must be gently restrained and supported, grounded and stabilized. It should be harmonized and given continuity in
a consistent and determined manner.

-
Pitta energy is focused and penetrating and can cut and harm. It must be gently relaxed and diffused. It is like a high
beam that hurts the eyes and is narrow in its field of illumination but, when expanded, can be a truly enlightening force.

-
Kapha energy is resistant and complacent. It must be moved and stimulated by degrees, like ice that must be slowly
melted until it can flow smoothly. We must consistently energize and stimulate the Kapha type to further action.



However, that an asana may not be good for a particular doshic type doesn't mean that they should never do it. It means
they should practice the asana in a way which guards against any potential imbalances. Take, for example, backbends.
Forceful or quickly done full backbends can cause major Vata aggravation, with severe strain to the nervous system
perhaps more so than any other asana. However, gentle partial backbends are great for reducing Vata that accumulates
in the upper back and shoulders.
Each asana family like standing poses, forward bends, or inverted postures has general benefits for the body as a whole
and its overall movement potential. Each asana family exercises certain muscles and organs that, as part of our entire
bodily structure, should not be neglected. To counter any tendencies toward imbalance, you should select poses within
each asana family that are better for your body type than others within the same group. In general, you should make sure
that all the main muscle groups in the body are represented in your practice at least several days each week.

Similarly, that an asana is good for a particular dosha doesn't mean all persons of that doshic type should do it. It means
that the asana can be good for them if done in the right way and if they are physically capable of it. Each asana also has
its degree of difficulty that may require certain warm up or preparatory postures to approach it safely. For example, the
right preparation for a headstand creates the arm and shoulder musculature needed to sustain a good and safe head
balance. Because a headstand is good for your doshic type doesn’t mean that you should simply jump into the
posture or can it without possible side-effects.

In addition, the effects of different asanas vary according to the sequence in which they are done. This means that asana
practice should always be viewed as a whole—not merely in terms of the single asanas that compose it but in
terms of the flow and the relationship between all the particular asanas done. Asana practice—meaning the
sequence and manner of doing asana as well as the specific asanas—should be designed to keep the doshas in
balance relative to the individual’s constitution and condition.

It is helpful to view asana sequence like an herbal formula. An ayurvedic herbal formula contains a number of herbs used
for various purposes that contribute to the overall effect of the formula, fulfilling specific roles. The overall doshic effect of
the formula is determined by the formula as a whole, not by any single herb within it viewed in isolation. Combining these
ayurvedic considerations with the general factors listed above, to effectively prescribe asanas teachers must learn to:

-
Assess the ayurvedic type and imbalances of the person.

-
Assess the structural condition of the person, including their posture, age and physical condition.

-
Assess their pranic condition, their control of the breath and senses, along with their vitality and enthusiasm.

-
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Assess the mental state of the person, their attention, will and motivation, as well as their emotional condition.



The same asana should be done differently relative to whether the person is Vata, Pitta or Kapha. The same asana
should be done differently depending upon the age, sex and physical condition of the person. It should vary depending
upon the whether the person has a strong or weak vitality. Additional variations will occur if a person is suffering from
anger, grief, stress or depression. This reflects four primary goals for an ayurvedic asana practice.

1. To balance the doshas

2. To improve the structural condition of the body

3. To facilitate the movement and development of prana

4. To calm and energize the mind

AYURVEDIC BODY TYPES AND ASANA PRACTICE
To understand the asana potentials of different people we will want to look at them according to their doshic body types.
Vata Body Type
Vata types have thin and long bones that are often weak or brittle. They have low body weight and poor development of
the muscles, but a good deal of speed and flexibility. Their bone structure makes them good at bending and stretching,
particularly of the arms and legs, when they are young. As they get older, however, the dry quality of Vata increases and
causes them to lose mobility if they don’t exercise regularly.

A gentle, slow asana practice evenly balanced on both sides of the body is the ideal exercise for Vata types. Vatas are
most in need of asana practice because asana alleviates accumulated Vata from the back and the bones, where it easily
gets lodged. Vata diseases begin with an accumulation of the downward moving air (Apana Vayu) in the colon, which
gets transferred to the bones, where it causes bone and joint problems. Vata benefits from the massaging action of
asana on the muscles and joints, which releases nervous tension and balances out the system.





Negative Potential of Vata





Vata types more commonly suffer from stiffness owing to dryness and deficiency in the tissues. Their lack of body weight
does not allow for adequate cushioning of the joints and nerves or proper hydration of the tissues. They are more prone
to injury because they like to initiate sudden and abrupt movements, as well as going to extremes in their practice.





Positive Potential of Vata





Vata types like movement and exercise and enjoy movement. They prefer to be active and expressive both physically
and mentally and like to do new things. Asana is something that they easily take to and grow accustomed to as part of
their active nature. It is a soothing way for them to exercise.





Blocked and Deficient Vata

There are two basic conditions of Vata, what are called blocked Vata or deficient Vata. Blocked Vata exhibits a stuck
energy somewhere in the body, along with pain or discomfort but otherwise normal body weight. Deficient Vata exhibits
low energy, low body weight and hypersensitivity, often without any acute pain. Blocked Vata requires movement
oriented or pranic asanas to release it. Deficient Vata requires a gentle and building approach, avoiding strong exertion.
Blocked Vata is more common in young people who have adequate energy but get it blocked, while deficient Vata is
more common in the elderly whose tissue quality is in decline.
Pitta Body Type
Pitta types have an average build with a generally good development of the muscles and a looseness of the joints, which
gives them a fair amount of flexibility. They are good at asana practice but cannot do some of the more exotic poses that
Vatas can do because of the shorter bones that they usually have. Pittas benefit from asana practice to cool down the
head, cool the blood, calm the heart and relieve tension. For example, Pittas tend to hypertension because of their fiery
temperament that keeps them always wanting to succeed or to win.




Negative Potential of Pitta





Pitta types tend to be overheated and irritable owing to excess internal heat. They may lack the patience to get started in
practice or to stick with it over time. On the other hand, once involved they can overdo postures and be aggressive and
militant in their practice. A Pitta who has pushed too hard in their practice will feel more irritable or even angry after they
finish. Pittas also will tend to stick with poses that they can do well and ignore those that may help them develop further.





Positive Potential of Pitta





Pittas have the best focus and determination of the doshic types. They easily get into a consistent discipline and
determined practice once they have gotten it started and oriented correctly. They are the most orderly and consistent of
the types. They just have to discover the right path to place their energies.






Kapha Body Type

Kaphas are typically short and stocky, gaining weight easily. With their short and thick bones they lack flexibility and
cannot do poses that require flexibility like the lotus pose. Yet they are sturdy and strong and have the best endurance of
the different types. Kaphas need movement and stimulation to counter their tendency to complacency and inertia. They
are good at keeping a practice going for longer periods of time, once they get it going in the first place.






Negative Potential of Kapha





Kaphas tend to be overweight, which limits their movement and makes them sedentary. They often have congestion in
the lungs that makes deep breathing difficult. They lack in positive effort and find it hard to change without some sort of
external stimulation. They need to be constantly prodded to do more or they will stop short in their efforts.





Positive Potential of Kapha





Kaphas are steady and consistent in what they do. Once they take something up they do it faithfully over time. They
remain emotionally calm and even in their practice regardless of the results. They view life
with love and work as a service.






The Ayurvedic Way of Performing Asanas

Ayurveda does not look upon asanas as fixed forms that by themselves either decrease or increase the doshas. It views
them as vehicles for energy that can be used to help balance the doshas, if used correctly. The same is true of the
ayurvedic view of food. While individual food items have their specific effects to increase or decrease the doshas, how
we prepare the food, how we antidote it with spices, how we combine it, or how we cook it to blend food qualities into an
harmonious whole, is as significant as the particular foods themselves.

While Ayurveda says that foods of certain tastes are more likely to increase or decrease specific doshas, it also says that
we need some degree of all the tastes. So too, we need to do all the major types of asanas to some degree. It is the
degree and exertion that varies with the doshic type. Each person requires a full range of exercise that deals with the full
range of motion in the body.

Your overall asana practice should be like a meal. Each meal should contain some degree of all six tastes (sweet, sour,
salty, pungent, bitter and astringent) and some amount of all nutrient types required for the body (starches, sugars,
proteins, oils, vitamins and minerals) but as adjusted to the needs of individual constitution. So too, asana practice
should contain all the main types of asanas necessary for exercising and relaxing the entire body adjusted to individual
constitutional factors. It should include sitting, standing and prone postures, expansive, contractive, ascending and
descending movements, but in a manner and sequence that keeps us in balance and considers our individual structural,
energetic and mental conditions.


Keys to Practicing Asana for Your Type Vata







General



Keep your energy firm, even and consistent; moderate and sustain your enthusiasm





Body



Keep the body calm, centered and relaxed; do the asana slowly, gently and without undue or sudden use of force, avoid
abrupt movements





Prana



Keep the breath deep, calm and strong, emphasizing inhalation


Mind



Keep the mind calm and concentrated, grounded in the present moment





Pitta





General



Keep your energy cool, open and receptive, like the newly waxing Moon





Body



Keep the body cool and relaxed; do the asanas in a surrendering manner to remove heat and tension





Prana

Keep the breath cool, relaxed and diffused; exhale through the mouth to relieve heat as needed





Mind



Keep the mind receptive, detached and aware but not sharp or critical





Kapha





General



Make sure to warm up properly and then do the asana with effort, speed and determination





Body



Keep the body light and moving, warm and dry


Prana



Keep the Prana upward moving and circulating; take deep, rapid breaths if necessary to maintain energy





Mind



Keep the mind enthusiastic, wakeful and focused like a flame

Sistemas Filosóficos de la India

Sistemas Filosóficos de la India Por Dr. Swami Maitreyananda Dharmachari -Yogacharya Fernando Estévez Griego Ph.D. ©Extractado del libro Filosofías de la India, ISBN 987-99526-3-4 Edicción de Editorial Integral Yoga ® Recopilación del Curso de Yoga y Filosofias de la India dictado en CCRRR Extensión Universitaria de la Universidad de Buenos Aires

La India ha desarrollado muchísimas escuelas filosóficas y ético-religiosas, existen seis escuelas ortodoxas con varias subdivisiones y otras tantas heterodoxas Ortodoxas Hinduistas (aceptan autoridad de los Vedas):

Seis escuelas hinduistas u ortodoxas que se basan en la autoridad de los vedas. Estas son: Sankya, Nyaya, Vaisesika, Mimansa, Ashtanga Yoga, Vedanta.

El Vedanta se subdivide además en seis escuelas.

Budistas (no aceptan autoridad de los Vedas): Seis escuelas budistas son: Theravadas, Madhyamikas, Asangala Yoga o Yogacharas, Dhyanayana (Zen), Mahayana y Tantrayana o (Vajrayana).

Heterodoxas Independientes (no aceptan los Vedas):

Antiguas: Jainistas, fundada históricamente por Mahavira. Devattistas, fundada por Devatta, primo del Budha. Sikhs, fundada por el Guru Nanak. Parsis, fundada por Zarathustra.

Modernas: Arya Samaj, Pratana Samaj, Brahma Somaj. Tantrismo: tratados y enseñanzas de diferentes escuelas, filosofías y religiones que toma lo vulgar como santo. Agnósticos y

Materialistas no religiosos: Charvakas, Ajitavadas, Makkhalivadas, Kassasapavadas, Sanjayayadas

Religiones no Indias: Islam, fundada por Mohamed o Mahoma.

Sufismo, fundada por Abu Hashin (Parte o secta del Islam).

Cristianismo, fundada por Jesús y llevada en el año 52 al Sur de India en Kerala por Santo Tomás.

Judaísmo, fundada por Moisés.

Taoísmo, fundada por Lao Tse.

Religiones Indias: Shaktas, adoradores de Shakti. Kaulas, adoradores de Kali. Saivas o Shivaitas, adoradores de Shiva. Vishnuistas o Vaishnavas, adoradores de Vishnu. Krishnavainavas, adoradores de Krishna.

Otros: Existen millones de deidades o divinidades en India.Hermandades o Sectas : Siddhas. Nathas. Vatrya. Bauls. Pasupatas.

Nuevas escuelas: Aurobindistas o Purnadviatavadas, escuela fundada por Aurobindo.

Ambedkaristas o Buddhistas Reformistas, escuela fundada por Ambed-kar.

Oshistas, escuela fundada por Bagavan Sri Rajneesh u Osho.

Saibabistas, escuela fundada por Sai Baba.

Agnósticos y Materialistas Ajitavadas: Ajita fue el fundador de la escuela materialista para el cual el existir era puramente material, sin que exista ningún tipo de Dios o ser Supremo que lo haya creado. Sanjaya fundó la escuela agnóstica india, netamente naturalista que negaba las supersticiones religiosas, tales como reencarnación, el karma y la existencia del alma.

Kassasapa lideró la escuela indiversifista que exponía que el Universo es amoral, o sea, que nada es moral o inmoral sino que la moral es una invención de algunas mentes humanas que persiguen determinados fines para satisfacer deseos o necesidades propias. Para Kssasapa no hay ningún mérito en ninguna acción o inacción como pretenden las demás religiones o filosofías.

Makkhali creó la escuela determinista. Para Makkhali el cielo de la vida era consecuencia de las leyes universales que regían la vida de todo y no podían ser modificadas por la acción voluntaria. Podría decirse que existe una especie de necesidad-destino que es el producto de las leyes que rigen cada ente, y a las cuales no se puede escapar porque se deja de ser ese ente para ser otro.

Lokayistas: Charvaka fue el fundador de la escuela, la única fuente de conocimiento para él es la Experiencia gracias a la percepción. Para los charvakas no existe la vida futura y todas las religiones son pura fantasía desde donde se establecen centros de poder. Los clérigos son haraganes que hablan contra el materialismo, el comercio y a favor de la espiritualidad porque no les gusta trabajar y pueden ganar favores y riquezas basándose en la ignorancia del pueblo o gente común.

Los Vedas son un montón de palabras vacías y sin sentido, como todos los libros sagrados. Para los charvakas Dios simplemente no existe.

Sistemas Filosóficos religiosos del Hinduismo

El hinduismo se denomina Sanatana Dharma que significa Religión Eterna: está compuesto por seis Dharshanas o visiones filosófica-religiosas y ética-psicológicas que en ocasiones se integran y que además se sustentan mutuamente en los Vedas. Creen en divinidades propias que a su vez poseen un cierto grado de parentesco. Asimismo, varios cultos o ritos religiosos y deidades casi opuestas conviven dentro del Hinduismo. Los shivaitas, shaktas y vishnuitas o vais-navas, etcétera. Estas filosofías y religiones se entremezclan, se sintetizan y se sus-tentan mutuamente creando a menudo movimientos sincréticos que conforman parte de una confederación liberal de creencias y corrientes de pensamiento.

Los seis sistemas de pensamiento o Dharshanas Sankhya

El Sankhya fue creado por Sri Kapila, quien tal vez fuera la primera persona que en Asia se llamó a sí mismo "filósofo". Se ubica temporalmente a Kapila en el año 700 antes de Cristo, aunque se han descubiertos ciertos escritos que establecerían que las enseñanzas del Sankhya provienen de épocas más antiguas (mil o dos mil años antes de Cristo) y por lo tanto Kapila sería, en realidad, el sistematizador de la escuela. Casi con probabilidad se puede apreciar en aquella época una influencia sobre Persia, Afganistán, Pakistán y la India del norte de dos grandes pensadores: Zaratustra (Zoroastro) y Kapila. El primero expuso filosofía Parsi o Mazdeismo en el Zend Avesta y el segundo el Sankhya.

La palabra Sankhya significa perfecta clasificación.

Para esta filosofía hay dos principios que se interaccionan en el Universo, los cuales se combinan en el constante devenir de la existencia y la vida. Estos son el Prakriti y Purusha. Aquí podemos apreciar que la teoría que expondremos ha tenido su influencia sobre el Budismo y el Taoísmo. Incluso todo indica que la primera exposición teórica del yin y yan fue extraída del concepto Universal del Sankhya. Prakriti, es la fuerza de la cual derivan todas las formas generando la materia.

Purusha es el principio sutil energético que activa a Prakriti y por la cual existe al deberle su origen. El concepto del Purusha de Sankhya es diferente del concepto del Ashtanga Yoga de Patanjali (Raja Yoga o Yoga Clásico Hinduista).

Para el Sankhya el Purusha no es el Gran Alma Universal sino el conjunto unitario de varios átomos individuales o almas que la componen. A semejanza de lo que acontece con el cuerpo humano y las células. Kapila limita su teoría a explicar el mundo fenomenológico que existe, apartándose casi del concepto teológico.

Hasta aquí veremos dos puntos en los cuales Kapila difiere del Vedanta y del Ashtanga Yoga. Kapila acepta la materia que en la teoría de Shankara es mera ilusión (maya). También Kapila no se refiere a un supuesto supremo Purusha como si este fuera un Dios aparte del Universo Kapila menciona a estos dos principios: Energía y Materia, como componentes del Todo, al cual nunca nombra. En algunas ocasiones ciertos pensadores han utilizado la palabra TAD para nombrar "aquello".

Este principio pudo dar origen a que la palabra TAD sirviera como antecesora de la palabra TAO en China, y que se estableciera que Yin y Yang como Prakriti y Purusha fueran dos manifestaciones de la Unidad.

La teoría de Kapila puede ser comprobada por la teoría del Big Bang que está de moda entre los científicos actuales, esto nos llevaría a tener presente que el Universo explota y luego implota. Cumpliendo los famosos cuatro siclos (kalpas). Todo el Universo estaría compuesto por el Espíritu y la Materia que serían las expresiones del UNO o del Todo concebido como Absoluto. Kapila es categórico al afirmar que el Purusha no es el único espíritu universal sino que es la suma total de todos los espíritus existentes en el Universo. En su teoría se aprecian las bases de los conceptos de atracción y gravedad, no sólo en lo material sino en los espiritual, que sería puramente energético.

El Purusha del Sankhya sería un conglomerado de espíritus atraídos entre sí, pero que obran en forma independientes como unidades que componen unidades mayores. Esto, evidentemente niega el concepto de Deísmo primitivo, que cree en la existencia de un Dios personal y separado del propio universo.

Cuando el Espíritu se mezcla con la Materia establece un "Alma". El Espí-itu (Purusha) sólo puede manifestarse gracias a la Materia (Prakriti). Por así decirlo, el Alma es el individuo generado en la manifestación de forma "material" de la entidad "espiritual". Vale decir que el espíritu está prisionero momentáneamente en la materia. A partir de aquí el Alma o verdadero Yo está totalmente sujeta a las leyes de la existencia material a las que denomina samsara. El sankhya afirma también que de la combinaciones posibles de las acciones y reacciones del espíritu y materia se han conformado todas las formas de vida. (Científicamente podríamos afirmar que de todas las acciones y reacciones de la energía y la materia se ha creado todas las formas de la vida). La Prakriti es la sustancia de la cual está compuesto el Universo. Pero esta carece de átomos. Los átomos son posibles cuando el Purusha anima a Prakriti quedando por así decirlo atrapado en ella por una acción semejante a la gravedad o fuerza de atracción. Luego con el tiempo del Prakriti se desgastará y el Purusha se liberará.Kapila agrega un componente decisivo para completar su teoría, este es el de las tres cualidades o gunas. Sattva, que significa armonía, pureza y verdad. Rajas, que significa pa-sión, cambios, actividad. Tamas que significa impureza, inercia o indiferencia.

Los 25 tattvas son la manifestación de Prakriti generada por el purusha, estos 25 tattvas son:1) Buddhi o mente intelectual racional o discernitiva. 2) Ahamkara o mente egotista o individualista. Las cinco cualidades: 3) Akasha o éter, 4) agua, 5) aire, 6) fuego, 7) tierra. Los cinco sentidos: 8) tacto, 9) oído, 10) olfato, 11) gusto, 12) vista. Los órganos de acción: 13) lengua, 14) manos, 15) pies, 16) excreción, 17) genitales.
Las cinco sustancias sutiles; 18) sonoridad, 19) visibilidad, 20) sensibilidad, 21) olfatibilidad, 22) sabor y 23) manas o mente conciente que se percata del mundo fenomenal a los que se suman el Prakriti y el Purusha. El alma es en la filosofía sankhya un purusha que posee los 25 tatvas.Básicamente el Sankhya no cree en la existencia de Dios.

Los Tres Sistemas Menores El Purva Mimansa de Jaimini, el Nyaya de Gotama y el Vaisheshika de Kanada.

Vaisheshika Su máximo teórico fue Sri Kanada. Kanada establece que el universo está compuesto por seis categorías a las que llama padarthas. 1 ) Drava o substancia la que se divide en nueve formas: 1) Tierra. 2) Aire, 3) Agua, 4) Luz, 5) Éter, 6) Tiempo, 7) Espacio, 8) Alma, 9) Mente. 2) Guna o cualidad que posee veinticuatro cualidades: 1) Color, 2) Sabor, 3) Olor, 4) Tacto, 5) Número, 6) Dimensión. 7) Individualidad, 8) Conjunción. 9) Prioridad, 10) Posteridad, 11) Comprensión, 12) Placer, 13) Dolor, 14) Deseo, 15) Aversión, 16) Volición, 17) Gravedad, 18) Disyunción, 19) Fluidez, 20) Viscosidad, 21) Salubridad, 22) Mérito, 23) Desmérito, 24) Reintegración. 3) Karma o acción que posee cinco movimientos resultados de la ley de acción y reacción los cuales son: 1) Ascendente, 2) Descendente, 3) Contracción, 4) Expansión, 5) Mudanza. 4) Samanya o generalidad que posee dos tipos de clases de todas las cosas: 1) Género o superior, y 2) Especie o inferior. 5) Vishesha o individualidad: para Kanada todas las substancias están compuestas de partículas llamadas átomos que cuando se van combinando generan las diferentes formas físicas y mentales. 6) Samavaya o coherencia: es el principio por el cual todas las partes conforman un todo. Principio de unión e integración. Para Kanada existe un Dios personal que dejará de existir cuando se termine el Universo.

Purva Mimansa Jaimini fue el creador del sistema y pregonó el Karma Yoga, o sea, la acción correcta que nos lleva a la liberación. Mimansa significa investigación. Este sistema es extremadamente orto-doxo y tradicionalista, se basa mucho en los ritos, ceremonias, plegarias que expusieron los Vedas. Para los mimansas los Vedas son la palabra de Dios y esto significa que hay que aceptar lo que ahí esta escrito. El mimansa propone las buenas obras y una marcada actitud religiosa.

Nyaya Gotama parece haber iniciado esta escuela aunque poco se sabe sobre el Nyaya que etimológicamente significa análisis.

En tal sentido el Nyaya propone la razón como medio de llegar a la verdad. Gotama trabajaba con silogismos lógicos al igual que en Grecia. Pero su silogismo estaba compuesto por cinco partes: 1) Premisa, 2) Prue-ba, 3) Ejemplo, 4) Aplicación y 5) Conclusión. Gotama agrega 16 componentes para investigar la verdad: 1) Medios de conocimiento, 2) Objetos a investigar, 3) Duda, 4) Propósito, 5) Precedente, 6) Dogma, 7) Premisa, 8) Confutación, 9) Afirmación, 10) Dis-creción, 11) Sutilezas, 12) Cavilación, 13) Falacia, 14) Prevaricación, 15) Obje-ciones, 16) Argumentos. Para que el investigador pueda comprender debe realizar cuatro medios de conocimiento: 1) Percepción sensorial, 2) Inferencia, 3) Analogías, 4) Testi-monios. Para que esto sea fuente de sabiduría real deben existir los 12 objetos de conocimiento: 1) Alma, 2) Cuerpo, 3) Sentidos, 4) Mundo fenomenológico, 5) Conciencia superior, 6) Mente, 7) Voluntad, 8) Error, 9) Estados más allí de la tierra, 10) Karma, 11) Dolor, 12) Liberación.

Historia de la filosofía Hinduista Los dos sistemas mayores: el Vedanta y el Ashtanga

Yoga Vedanta: También conocido como Uttara Mimansa, significa fin de los Vedas. Es uno de los seis sistemas filosófico-religiosos o darshanas que componen el hinduismo que se basa en los Vedas y que acepta su autoridad Los bramanes han aceptado como sistemas ortodoxos del hinduismo el Mimansa o Purva Mimansa, el Vedanta o Uttara Mimansa, el Patanjala Yoga o Ashtanga Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisesika y Sankya. Podríamos decir que el Purva Mimansa y el Vedanta son sistemas netamente filosófico-religiosos, mientras que el Nyaya, Vaisesika y Sankya podrían catalogarse de racionalistas, y el Patanjala o Ashtanga Yoga, de moralista. Los tipos de yoga desarrollados desde el Vedanta han sido el Jñana y el Bhakti Yoga, en contraposición al Raja Yoga pregonado por el Patanjala o Ashtanga Yoga de Patanjali. En cambio, el Mimansa ha seguido el Karma Yoga.

Como sistema filosófico-religioso el Vedanta es, sin lugar a dudas, aquel que mejor representa la flor y nata del hinduismo, afirmándose en la tradición védica pero sabiendo captar para sí las diversas elaboraciones filosóficas indias, así como la doctrina Budista expuesta por Nagarjuna y otros, además del Sankhya.

Históricamente se considera a Badarayana como el padre de esta escuela. Teniendo en cuenta que el legendario Badarayana habla de Braman y que los Brahma Sutras fueron escritos entre los siglos III y IV, para refutar ciertas teorías de Vasubandhu, se puede afirmar que tanto el Vedanta como el Patanjala Yoga son las versiones hinduistas adaptadas a la ortodoxia bramánica y basadas en los Vedas, que disputaban su supremacía con el Madhyamika de Nagarjuna, con su doctrina del maya -ilusión- y el Asangala Yoga o Yogacharas de Asanga, ambos Budistas y antivédicos.

Resumiendo, los Sutras del Vedanta fueron escritos en el 350 después de Cristo. En el siglo VIII Gaudapada escribió el Mandukya Karika que viene a ser la continuación del texto Uspanishádico Mandukya. Gaudapada fue fuertemente influido por la Escuela Madhiamika o Sunyavada del budismo, que profesara el Buda Nagarjuna, a tal punto que la doctrina de la Ilusión y ciertas concepciones psicológicas buddhistas no sólo se reflejaran en él sino en Shankaracharya, quien hará suya la doctrina del maya. Gaudapada realiza un sincretismo entre la religiosidad uspanishádica y el idealismo Budista del Madhymika, con la asimilación de la escuela del Yoga del Buda Asanga o Yogakaras.

La influencia de Nagarjuna y Asanga se patenta en la afirmación del Vedanta de Gaudapada, quien afirma que el nacimiento y la muerte son apariencias y que no existe esclavitud ni liberación. El vacío de Nagarjuna se convierte en el atma de Gaudapada y este se asemeja a la mente que expone Asanga. Gaudapada tendrá como discípulo a Govindapada, quien a su vez fue maestro de Shankara, el padre de la escuela Kevaladvaita o monista del Vedanta.

Shankara no sólo reafirma la noción budista de Nagarjuna del monismo idealista, sino que participa de la filosofía del absoluto. Para Shankara, Brahman es el atma, por lo que, sin lugar a dudas, esto significa que concibe la mente expuesta por Asanga como sin segundo, exponiendo un unicismo acertado. Por aquel entonces no había una clara diferencia entre el budismo y el vedantismo, más que en el orden socio-económico, pero Shankara -ante el derrumbe del budismo- se afirma en el hinduismo y crea órdenes monásticas similares a las shangas budistas, denominadas ashrams.

Los bikkhus budistas serán reemplazados por los swamis, sacerdotes hinduistas que usarán también el color naranja como atuendo. Shankara fundó en diez ordenes sw swamis en diferentes puntos de la India estas nuevas órdenes que sirvieron notablemente para afianzar el hinduismo, generaron una estructura muy solida que en rincipio quedo en manos de los cuatro discípulos directos de Shankara que fueron llamados Shankaracharyas del Norte, Sur, Oeste y Este, quienes a sus vez dejaron sus respectivos sucesores perpetuando el linaje. Actualmente existen mas de diez Shankaracharyas. Shankara ha sido considerado un iluminado histórico, así como una encarnación del propio Shiva. Varias escuelas tántricas y cultos shivaístas adoptaron su doctrina, pero sus libros, Atma Bodha o Viveka Chudamoni, son en realidad el punto más alto de la filosofía hinduista.

Shankara ha racionalizado la filosofía del ser, como Brahman-Atma. Con esto ha unido los conceptos de los brahmanes y los Uspanishad con las concepciones de Gaudapada y Badarayana, así como la influencia yogachaara o madhyamika. Le sirvió la aprobación de la casta brahmánica que consideró dicha interpretación como la más ortodoxa de la filosofía védica. El Ser para Shankara es el Absoluto, que es en sí mismo realidad y existencia.

El concepto de Brahman-Atma sería semejante al de Dharma de Sariputra, discípulo del Buda que plantea que es la última realidad de todas las cosas o esencia del ser.

En el siglo IX aparecen Padmapada que escribió el Panchapadka y Vacaspatimisra, que escribió el Bhamati.

Ya en el siglo X, Bhaskara escribió un comentario de los sutras vedantinos denominado Bhyasa o Comentario, donde expone el Bhedabheda y afirmando que Dios es y a la vez no es Dios. Esto dio paso a que en el siglo XI y XII el Vedanta se dirigiera hacia el dualismo e incluso hacia la concepción teísta de un Dios apartado del Ser. Cabe agregar que el monismo shankariano y de Badarayana se desarrolló en la India aria, mientras que el dualismo nacería en la India dravida (Karnatake-Misore).

En el país Tamil, al sur de la India frente a la Sri Lanka budista, en del siglo XI, Nathamunicompone el Natariya Prabadham con casi cuatro mil versos. Este poeta místico que tenía por nieto a Yamuna, el padre de la escuela Gitarthasamgrha, refleja un sentir netamente antishankariano y difunde el Bagavad Gita, apoyándose en la tradición visnuista de Agamapramaya. Y

amuna consigue un sincretismo vedántico con las enseñanzas del Gita. Esto llevó a que Ramanuja rompiera totalmente con la interpretación shankariana del Vedanta, desarrollando el Viscistadvaita o dualismo calificado. Para Ramanuja existe el Ser, Brahman y el mundo espiritual o cid, junto al mundo corpóreo o acid, especificando que Brahman es causa-materia del Universo, siendo -por así decirlo- el alma del universo donde lo físico o espiritual son formas o cualidades del Criador.

De esta forma, todas las cosas no pueden existir sin Dios. Después de Ramanuja, en el año 1100, nació Nimbarka, el padre de la escuela vedántica Dvaitadvaita. Nació en Deccan y fue vinuista como los anteriores, concilió el monismo con el pluralismo. Para Nimaba las cosas están separadas aparentemente de Dios, como por ejemplo, las hojas de un árbol. Para esto Nimbarka escribe los Vedanta-parijatasaurabha y el Dasaloki. Nimbarka influyó en Nivasa (siglo XIII) autor del vedanta Kaustuba. Y resulta claro que varias escuelas como los Tenkalai hayan llegado a pensar que la salvación es sólo producto de la gracia divina. Pero la escuela que más se aparta de Shankara, y que lo niega por completo, es laMadhva, que nació cerca del 1200 y era sacerdote vishnuista. El declara un dualismo radical y además una línea tan grande como un muro entre Dios y el Universo, entre el espíritu y la materia. Para Madhva la doctrina shankariana del maya es falsa. Por consiguiente, Madhva va a resaltar un monoteísmo muy similar a la mayoría de las corrientes cristianas, judías y musulmanas. Madhva fue el autor del célebre Sutrabhyasa. El Vedanta ha aportado a la India y a la humanidad, varias nociones y posibilidades teológicas. Caitanya y Gauranga se inspiran en Madhva hacia el 1500 y esto desarrolla fuertemente el Bhaktivedanta. Las síntesis Madhavacharya de tendencia shankariana sincretizó el Mimansa con el Vedanta, en el Jaiminiyanyayanmatavistara, así como sincretizó luego éste con el sankhya en el Pancadasi. No conforme, Madavacharya escribe el Sarva Darsana Smagraha, que expone desde el punto de vista shankariano unas 16 filosofías de la India. Hacia el 1550 aparece un verdadero ecléctico Vijñanabikhu, que establece que cada uno de los dharsanas ortodoxos y de las visiones del Vedanta tienen su razón. Su obra más conocida es el comentario de Patanjala Yoga de marcado vedantismo que titularaYogasarara sasamgraha. Antes que esta famosa persona, ya Sadananda , 80 años antes había intentado sincretizar el Patanjala Yoga, Vedanta y Sankhya. Pero fue Vallaba, que el pleno siglo XVI, fundó la escuela vedántica de Suddhavaita, o monismo absoluto o realista. Este reformador fue más religioso que filosófico. Su filosofía es catalogada como materialista y hedonista, aunque afirmar esto es exagerado y superficial, lo que está lejos de ser un insulto. Sus obras cumbres fueron Anubhasya y Tattvadipanibandha. Yoga Sutras El yoga está compuesto por innumerables métodos que contienen diversas técnicas en ciertas ocasiones comunes, y en otras opuestas. Estos métodos trabajan diferentes áreas, desarrollan especialidades y modalidades, formando inexorablemente escuelas de yoga. En este contexto, el Patanjala Yoga o Ashtanga Yoga expuesto por Patanjali en los Yoga Sutras es la primera sistematización del yoga dentro del brahmanismo (y luego hinduismo). Pero no debe perderse de vista que existen en la India y fuera de ella otros métodos, no sólo sistematizados sino asistemáticos, con una rica tradición y desarrollo. Es deseable comprender que fuera del Brahmanismo (hinduismo) surgieron métodos de yoga dentro del budismo, jainismo; tantrismo, taoísmo y otros. Los Yoga Sutras representan el esfuerzo de Patanjali y porque no, de Vyasa en su comentarios (Mahabyasa) de crear un darshana ortodoxo con el Yoga. Por este motivo el Patanjala Yoga es uno de los seis sistemas ortodoxos del hinduismo, lo que equivale a decir que el brahmanismo acepta esta interpretación patanjalística, pero considera herética las versiones del budismo, jainismo y ni que hablar del tantrismo. Por lo expuesto, es totalmente incorrecto decir, mantener o afirmar que el yoga es uno de los seis sistemas filosófico-religiosos del hinduismo que reciben el nombre de Darshana, por el contrario, debemos decir que el Ashtanga Yoga de Patanjali es uno de estos seis sistemas que pertenecen a dicha cultura Definiré al hinduismo (sanatan dharma) como una cultura e identidad que posee una cosmología, filosófico-religiosa con varias posibilidades y sendas a seguir. También es preciso remarcar que en los Sutras no se abarca la globalidad de esta ciencia del yoga y que tampoco se agota. Para comprender cabalmente este libro, debemos trasladarnos a los tiempos históricos de su creación y desmenuzarlos. Estudiemos entonces parte por parte el desarrollo del yoga expuesto por Patanjali y sus rivales contemporáneos, así también como su personalidad. Patanjali. Según la leyenda nació el 31 de octubre en Bharata Varsha unos 200 años antes de Cristo su madre era Gonika y su padre Angiras, su esposa Lolupa y su hijo Nagaputra. Su abuelo fue Hiranyagarbha fundador mitologico del yoga cuya hija era la madre de Patanjali Se ha querido afirmar y asociar al autor de los Sutras con Patanjali, con el gramático, que comentó las obras de Panini, pero esto no ha sido confirmado La última parte de los Sutras hace referencia a la escuela rival de Patanjali, o sea, la Yogachara de Asanga (Asangala Yoga) y esto debería haber sido escrito en el siglo IV después de Cristo. Tiendo a creer que la última parte de los Yoga Sutras fue agregada muy tardíamente porVyasa, y que no es obra de Patanjali, pues trata cuestiones ya mencionadas en capítulos anteriores y mantiene un estilo diferente. De todas formas el aporte de Vyasa lo transforma en un fiel seguidor de la escuela del Ashtanga Yoga Sin duda, los Sutras han sido alterados constantemente hasta nuestros días, teniéndose varias versiones e interpretaciones, pero conservando su esencia. Mitológicamente se afirma que Patanjali es una encarnación de Adisesa o Ananta, la mística serpiente de Vishnu